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When war broke out in 1914, Italy decided to remain neutral, even though it was part of the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary. Prime Minister Antonio Salandra's government had not been consulted on the start of the war with Serbia, and decided Vienna was not waging the defensive war the alliance was based on. As the war spread across Europe in the following months, pressure grew on Rome. Italy's interests, though, were contradictory. If the country joined the Allies, it could target Austro-Hungarian lands in Tirol, Trieste, or Dalmatia where some of the population spoke
Italian. This appealed to those who wanted to complete the national unification started in the mid-19th century known as the risorgimento. Britain and France might also agree to Italian imperial gains in Africa. If Italy joined the Central Powers, it could limit Serbian influence, make claims on southeastern France, or demand Italian-speaking areas from Austria-Hungary as compensation. But it would be vulnerable to the British and French navies, and it depended on British coal imports and financial systems. Foreign Minister Antonino di Sangiuliano summed
up the dilemma in September 1914: "For us it would be ideal if on the one side Austria and on the other side France were both to be beaten." (Wilcox, The Italian Empire and the Great War, 43) Over the winter of 1914-15, Italians debated what to do, a discussion made more complicated by bitter divisions pre-dating the war. In June 1914, workers and leftists tried and failed to carry out a general strike, but the so-called Red Week saw violent clashes between strikers and anti-leftist militias. Many leaders feared a socialist or a nationalist revolution, and the war question
brought more extreme rhetoric. In the neutral camp were most of the centrist political parties, socialists, the Catholic church, unions, and countryside - especially in the rural south. Former Prime Minister Giolitti declared his opposition: "To break the alliance and to go from neutrality to attack is a betrayal that has hardly been seen in history." (Rauchensteiner, German, 393) Some influential nationalist forces though, wanted to fight Austria-Hungary and fulfil the risorgimento. They insisted Vienna oppressed Italian speakers, whose homelands were being Slavicised. A smaller group of social democrats
and syndicalists also felt Italy should join the Allies as a "democratic intervention" against autocracy. Some wealthy industrialists hoped for war as a way of avoiding a social revolution. War supporters were mostly in cities and in the north, and from the middle or upper classes. A few came from the Italian community in Austria-Hungary: Cesare Battisti, for example, was a former Austro-Hungarian politician who joined the Italian army and gave pro-war speeches. The Socialist Party expelled Benito Mussolini for his pro-war stance. He wrote that he wanted
war or there would be a republic, a threat to the reign of King Emmanuel III. Another pro-war voice was writer Gabriele D'Annunzio, who planned to return from France to support the cause. Since the Italian state was based on the idea of the 19th century risorgimento, the government could hardly renounce the idea without further adding to political instability. In October 1914, Salandra announced that "Sacred Egoism" would guide his policy - Italy's national interest was more important than morality or old alliances. Still, nationalist voices dominated
the public debate even though the majority of the population and parliament supported neutrality. The government hoped that a short, successful war might unite the nation and resolve its crises. Salandra and new Foreign Minister Sydney Sonnino began secret talks with both sides to see which could offer a better deal. Rome demanded concessions of Vienna for remaining neutral, but the Austro-Hungarians were reluctant to give up territory based on nationality, since that would undermine the dynastic, multinational basis for their state and bring demands from other
neighbours like Romania. Berlin pressured the Habsburgs to give in to Italy's demands, and there was even some talk of offering part of German Silesia and gold as compensation. Austrian Chief of the General Staff Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf feared that the army could simply not stop the Italians if they attacked, so he reluctantly urged territorial concessions too. At first, Kaiser Franz Josef refused entirely, frustrating Germans like Moritz Freiherr von Lyncker: "The Austrians don't want to [compromise], they're so arrogant and stubborn, especially the old
Kaiser and the so-called high nobility. What they think war with Italy will be like no one can tell; one gets the feeling they'd rather go down with honour and drag us into their abyss with them. What a lovely prospect." (Rauchensteiner German 382) As the situation worsened in early 1915, Franz Josef publicly agreed to give part of the Trentino region and make Trieste a free city, but by then it was too late. In March, Salandra wrote to Sonnino: "[Vienna should] be allowed to believe that we regard a friendly solution as possible, and all the more so, the less we believe in it. This stance however much
power of disguise it might cost you, seems to me to be currently essential in the interests of our country" (Rauchensteiner, 372) The Italians had made progress in their talks with Allies. At first, London, Rome, and Petrograd resisted what they saw as excessive Italian demands. Russia also worried these might damage Serbia's interests. By late April though, the two sides secretly signed the Treaty of London, unknown to the public. Italy agreed to join the war within a month, and the Allies agreed Italy would receive territories bordering Austria-Hungary, including South Tyrol, Istria, Trieste, Dalmatia, and some
Adriatic islands. Italy would also gain influence in Albania and the port of Valona, plus future colonial expansion in Africa and Asia Minor. On May 3, Rome informed Vienna it was formally terminating their alliance. Nationalist rhetoric reached a fever pitch in early May when D'Annunzio returned to Italy and gave a series of speeches demanding war and spiritual purification. He also called for violence against the liberal parliamentary system, which he considered an internal enemy. He waxed poetic in a typical speech: "Blessed be the youths who hunger and thirst for glory, for they will be sated. Blessed be the merciful ones, for they will cleanse a luminous blood and bind a shining grief.
Blessed be the pure of heart, blessed be those who will return victorious, for they will see Rome's new visage, Dante's forehead crowned anew, Italy's triumphant beauty." (Bonadeo 73) After months of bitter debate, the government was in crisis, since it had secretly committed to war but still needed parliament's approval. Most of parliament opposed the war, especially since the Allied campaigns in Gallipoli and Russia were now going badly. Salandra offered the King his resignation, but the opposition was too fractured to form a government. Salandra also raised the danger of revolution if Italy remained neutral. King Victor Emmanuel refused the resignation, Salandra remained Prime Minister, and parliament voted for war. On May 23, Italy declared war on
Austria-Hungary. Vienna had expected the move, but the Kaiser, government, press, and many Habsburg subjects were outraged at the betrayal and "perfidy" of a former ally. Reserve officer Ottokar Hanzel wrote to his wife, echoing the language of the Kaiser's declaration: "How much longer before the thunder of cannon echoes off the faces of the mountains. Italy has perpetrated an unparalleled breach of fidelity; may it be punished for this." (Glück, Ines Rebhan. "'To You, to You!'") The front ran about 650km, mostly along the Alps, which rose to nearly 4000 metres, turning towards the sea along the Soca or Isonzo
river valley and the Karst plateau. Italian commander Luigi Cadorna had a war plan, but the army was unprepared and mobilization was slow. Not all men had been conscripted in peacetime, many had emigrated to the Americas, and there was a shortage of officers, supplies, and weapons like machine guns or trench mortarsg. The officer corps and army had also not yet recovered from the 1911-12 War in Libya. Still, Italy had about 1 million men under arms. The Austro-Hungarian army had suffered heavy losses on the Russian and Balkan fronts,
but it transferred some troops to the new Southwest Front under Archduke Eugen, and called up local militias with some men in their 70s. Austrian positions on mountains and hills overlooked any approaches the Italians might take, and they strengthened them further with concrete and belts of barbed wire - in some places up to three belts, each up to 9m thick. They also had excellent intelligence about Italian deployments thanks to the help of Swiss intel chief Karl Egli. Vienna asked Berlin for help, but the Germans only sent one mountain brigade with orders not
to cross the border. Conrad was pessimistic: "Given the numerical superiority of the Italians and the great capability of their modern artillery, we must reckon with the fact they will soon demolish our fortifications and penetrate our territory." (Rauchensteiner German 411) The Italians advanced cautiously at first, moving up to the Isonzo river in places, and to the edge of the Karst plateau. In a daring assault Italian Alpini captured the 2200m Krn on June 16, a feat even their enemy admired. Rain and cold though, created problems for the Italians, while the Austrians were less uncomfortable in their underground shelters. Italian soldier Virgilio Bonamore complained: "It hasn't stopped raining for a single day.
The cold was so intense that the whole battalion apart from 50 had to go down with frostbitten feet." (Thompson, 129) The Italians also occupied some positions on the Tyrol front, but usually because the Austro-Hungarians had left them for better ones higher up the mountains. Italian guns shelled several of the Austrian's blocking forts, like Lusern and Verle, but the Austro-Hungarians held them. Fruitless Italian attacks against the forts lasted until August. At sea, the Habsburg navy struck first. Warships bombarded rail lines, coastal batteries and other targets along the Italian coast. The Italian navy was slow to react, and the promised British and French help slow to arrive.
After the initial skirmishes, the Italians began a major offensive on the Isonzo front. The Italian 2nd and 3rd Armies were to eliminate the enemy bridgehead over the river near Gorica (known as Gorizia in Italian and Goerz in German), and move up onto the Karst plateau between Sagrado and Monfalcone. If they broke the Austro-Hungarian lines, they could push on towards Trieste, Ljubljana, and beyond. Cadorna's plan was based on numerical superiority and frontal assaults, as the narrow river valley limited Italian options. 460,000 Italians and 1800 guns
faced just 230,000 Austro-Hungarians and 640 guns of General Svetozar Boroevic's 5th Army. On June 23, Italian troops attacked after a short barrage limited by a lack of ammunition and heavy guns. They made limited progress in the face of well-placed Austria defences manned by experienced troops. The Italians did force the Austrians back a little on the Karst, partly because Austro-Hungarian positions were weaker there. Italian officer Renato di Stolfo described the result of a badly organized uphill attack on Monte San Michele: "In a whirl of death and glory, within a few moments,
the epic Garibaldian style of warfare is crushed and consigned to the shadows of history!'' (Thompson, 108) Over the next two weeks, Italian troops tried again and again to push the Austrians off of their hilltop trenches, gaining tiny footholds on some. Rain turned hillsides into mud, and Italian troops were exposed to enemy fire since they couldn't dig trenches in the hard ground. In other places, Italian troops couldn't even reach the Austrian lines because of the wire, and Austrian machine gunners and artillery decimated the inexperienced attackers in No Man's Land and behind Italian lines. An Italian soldier recalled:
"All at once the cry goes up, with nothing human about it, "Savoy!" - which the valleys echo up to the sky, as if invoking God's witness to their martyrdom. But a wall of iron stops them, a cloud of fire envelops them." (Thompson, 110) Cadorna finally stopped the offensive on July 7. Overall, at the first Battle of the Isonzo, Italian forces advanced just a few hundred metres for 15,000 casualties, while the Austro-Hungarians suffered 10,000. The Austrians had held the line, but were too weak for a counteroffensive. Conrad fantasized about what could have been:
"If we only had four divisions for a counter-attack, then the dogs would run right back to Tagliamento" (Rauchensteiner, 405) So the Italians had tried and failed to break the Habsburg defences on the Isonzo Front. But Cadorna soon tried again. Just ten days after the end of the first battle, the 2nd Battle of the Isonzo began with another Italian offensive on July 17. Italian forces had the same objectives, but were better prepared and had more heavy artillery. An Austro-Hungarian soldier recorded the impact: "Terrible bombardment, which is more than any human can bear. A wonder that one is
still alive. […] The number of wounded is huge, we no longer have sufficient bearers for the injured. The people have lost their minds from terror." (Rauchensteiner, 405) Italian troops made it to the outskirts of Gorica in house-to-house fighting, but the Austrians stopped them. Italian soldiers captured Mount San Michele three times, but each time the Austro-Hungarians pushed them off. Similar stories played on other important hills, like Hill 383 and Redipuglia. Another Austro-Hungarian soldier scribbled a note in his diary during the fighting: "The artillery fire becomes insanely heavy at night. I thought I was nearing my end, and made
ready to die as a good Christian. It is over. Butchery without parallel. A terrible bloodbath. Blood is flowing everywhere and all around the dead and pieces of bodies lie in circles, so that…" (Rauchensteiner, 405) The diary entry ended abruptly as the writer was killed. Meanwhile, the Italian 3rd Army also made little progress on the Karst. The heavier shells caused more Austro-Hungarian casualties, partly because on the Karst, every explosion sent splinters of rock flying through the air alongside shrapnel. But the Austro-Hungarians' tenacious defence was too much for the badly-led Italians,
who also suffered from inadequate shelter, lack of water, cholera, and poor battlefield intelligence. The 2nd Battle of the Isonzo ended on August 3 with hardly any Italian gains. The Italians suffered about 42,000 killed and wounded, the Austro-Hungarians about 46,000. Italian losses were high partly because commanders insisted on pressing attacks even against stronger enemy positions, while Austro-Hungarian losses were high because of the weight of Italian shelling and costly counterattacks. For the rest of August, the Italians kept up
with smaller attacks along the front, including at 2200m Mount Rombon. Locally-based Slovenian Habsburg troops defended the position successfully with particular skill and determination. Rome had expected a short war when the army marched over the border in May, but by August two offensives had failed, and the troops were already showing signs of trouble. As the offensives bogged down, Italian morale fell. Future fascist Arturo Rossato later described his feelings about his fellow soldiers on the march: "The smell of blood spurts within me like a must in my veins, giving me the cruel taste of joy
and violence. Already I seem to possess death as one violently takes a beautiful woman - and they, bent and long-eared like mules, paw grotesquely along the sides of the road without a shout or song. Why?" (Gooch 101) Most of the men were peasants, many of whom did not yet feel a strong connection to the pan-Italian national identity that had united the country just 50 years earlier, and served as a justification for the war. Some of the workers in the army also held anti-war socialist views. One soldier later recalled:
"I did not know why there was a war at all. For that matter they didn't let the troops in on anything. You had to find your reasons for yourself, on the spot." (Thompson 95) When faced with hopeless attacks, incompetent officers, and difficult conditions, many lost hope - 9000 Italian soldiers deserted in 1915, and the army would execute 4000 men throughout the war. Cadorna's excessive insistence on harsh discipline further decreased morale. Italy entered the war in May 1915 as a deeply divided nation, with the government expecting a
quick victory. But the failures of the first two Isonzo offensives showed Austria-Hungary could defend itself, and the Italian army was lacking in motivation, organization, leadership, tactics, and equipment. Cadorna dismissed 27 generals, but improvements would take time. Rome requested aid from Britain and France, but they were tied down on other fronts. Austria-Hungary had, for now, survived what had seemed to Conrad an impossible crisis. Habsburg subjects, divided on the war with Russia, mostly saw Italy as a perfidious enemy - especially Slovenes,
Croats, and German-Austrians whose homelands were threatened. How long Austria could fight what was now a three-front war no one could say, and Cadorna was sure to test their resolve again soon. When I travel from my home in Vienna to the Real Time History studio in Berlin, the night train passes through multiple countries and that is a headache. Suddenly, every website assumes I speak Czech or Polish or I can't access any services I use back home anymore. With a VPN like NordVPN, this is a thing of the past and I can still access geoblocked sites and business files. And NordVPN
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That's https://nordvpn.com/thegreatwar - we like to thank NordVPN for sponsoring this episode. We want to thank Beatrice Braun-Arnold for her help with his documentary. For more about the war year 1915, check out previous videos about the 2nd Battle of Ypres and the Winter Battles in the Carpathians. As usual you can find all the sources for this video in the description below. If you are watching this video on Patreon or Nebula thank you so much for the support, we couldn't do it without you. I am Jesse Alexander and this is a production of Real Time History, the only history channel basking in the glow of Dante's forehead.
