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The Roman Empire reached its territorial zenith during the reign of Caesar Nerva Trajanus, better known as Trajan. The senate declared Trajan to be the "optimus princeps", or best ruler in English, and it is tough to argue against that notion. He had many military exploits under his name, the most famous of which was the Parthian campaign. Nevertheless, his most successful campaigns and the ones which have left a monumental impact were his wars with Dacia. Trajan himself had obviously allotted great importance to them since he had an entire triumphal column
completely dedicated to the Dacian Wars. This obviously raises a few questions - what are the origins of the Roman-Dacian conflict and why was Dacia so important to Rome? In order to find the answers, we have to go back to the 1st century BC, a crucial century in both Dacian and Roman history. By the middle of the century, Burebista had managed to unite the tribes of the Dacian kingdom under his rule, corresponding to the lands in between the Danube, Tisa, and Dniester rivers. He proved to be a prolific conqueror as well, having captured the lands of many surrounding tribes and the Greek cities on the Western coast of the Black Sea
by 48 BC. As one of the most powerful independent realms surrounding the Roman Republic at the time, the Dacians became involved in the Roman civil war by supporting Gnaeus Pompey Magnus. The latter's defeat at Pharsalus at the hands of Caesar made Burebista an enemy of Rome. Thus, the first seeds of conflict between Rome and Dacia were sown. Caesar had planned to invade Dacia, however, he was assassinated in 44 BC. Coincidentally, Burebista was also assassinated shortly afterwards by the Dacian aristocracy. Dacia subsequently fragmented into 4, later 5,
smaller kingdoms and would not pose a threat to Rome for more than a century. The Dacian Kingdom would only be reunited during the reign of Duras or his successor Decebalus in the later 1st century AD. By that time, the Roman Empire had expanded to the right bank of the Danube, and the province of Moesia [misha] was created. In 85 AD, the Dacians mounted an attack on Moesia, killing the province's governor in the process. Emperor Domitian traveled to the area personally and divided Moesia into two separate provinces. In 87, the Romans undertook an expedition into Dacia which ended in disaster. The following year,
a far more successful campaign was undertaken, though it was cut short by trouble in Germania. Left without a choice, Domitian signed a, what was at that time considered shameful, peace with Decebalus. Decebalus became a friend and ally of Rome and would receive large yearly subsidies and specialists of all sorts. In exchange, he would keep the Lower Danube safe from disturbances and allow Roman armies to reach the Marcomanic front through his lands. This peace lasted for more than ten years, until the new Emperor, Trajan grew tired of paying
large amounts of money to the Dacians. Instead, he decided to turn Dacia into a new Roman province. The Dacian wars, as they came to be known, were one of the Roman Empire's greatest campaigns of expansion since the reign of Octavian. To say that the treaty from the previous war was the only reason for the war is a gross misconception, as a variety of factors affecting the decision to conquer Dacia. Firstly, we would have to take a gander at the situation within the Roman Empire in the second half of the 1st century A.D. The Romans were at the pinnacle of military organization, therefore the size of the Roman
army depended mainly on the cost of its upkeep. For a certain period of time, military upkeep was not a problem, as the gold mines in Hispania and plunder from newly-conquered territories provided plenty of income for the state. This all changed during the 1st century, when the gold mines began showing signs of depletion and when expansion reached a glass ceiling. Since the soldiers were mainly paid in gold and silver, this put a heavy strain on the Roman economy. During Nero's reign, the economic situation would only deteriorate further. Financial mismanagement
and the Great Fire of Rome took a significant toll on the already dwindling treasury. Nero's harsh tax policies led to civil wars, and internal conflicts would continue even after his death. The pacification of the Great Jewish Revolt and the subsequent plunder of the region provided the Roman treasury with some much-needed income. Domitian, constantly at odds with the senate, was forced to rely on the army and on popular support for much of his reign. To secure his popularity with them, he increased military pay by one-third and undertook many public works.
Fortunately, Domitian's economic micromanagement ensured that the economy would remain somewhat stable. Alas, it was only a matter of time until the aforementioned issues resurfaced. Secondly, we would have to analyze Dacia itself. The heartland of Dacia was located in modern-day Transylvania. This relative isolation, along with the fact that most of the major settlements were placed at higher altitudes, meant that the land would not only survive, but thrive during difficult times. During the years of peace, Decebalus used the Roman stipend and specialists
to build a large network of fortifications within the heartland of his kingdom. Although the Dacians were still viewed as uncivilized barbarians, the Romans did recognize that they were a cut above the rest of their European neighbors. The Dacians were not only able to form their own alliances, but also capable of subjugating nearby tribes, as shown during the reign of Burebista. Because of the potentially large size of the Dacian army, it was believed that in case of a great crisis, they could overrun the Balkan peninsula. It is interesting to note that although the Romans had already won a major victory, they were still
afraid of the Dacians and the threat that their armies inspired. According to Jordanes, the Dacians were known as fierce warriors. The poet Virgil even wrote that Mars was born among them. Accordingly, it is of no surprise that the Dacian kingdom was considered to be a substantial threat to the security of the Roman Empire. Another reason for the war was Dacia's vast natural resources. The Carpathian Mountains had plenty of stone, iron, copper, and salt, however, the large deposits of gold and silver were the main allure for Trajan. With the mines in Hispania
slowly depleting, Dacia was seen as a viable alternative for the mining of those precious metals. Archaeologists have uncovered many troves of Dacian coins in modern-day Romania. The coins were indeed Dacian, even though they were most likely minted in the Roman Empire. Taking this into consideration, it seems as if the Romans were well aware of how much gold the Dacians possessed. There were also tales about the colossal amount of wealth that Decebalus had personally amassed. The final reasons for the war were simply a matter of prestige and legitimacy.
Domitian's peace with Decebalus was seen as a grave humiliation for the Romans, hence avenging that failure was seen as redemption. Domitian was assassinated in 98 and he was succeeded by Nerva, who would only rule for a few years. Nerva adopted Trajan as his successor. Trajan was not related by blood to Domitian or Nerva, therefore a successful war against Dacia provided an excellent method of solidifying his legitimacy. Additionally, after several decades of civil strife, a major victory against a foreign power would have made the general populace happier.
The First Dacian War started in 101 AD. Trajan's campaign was a resounding success. After a devastating military defeat and the capture of his own sister, Decebalus sued for peace. The subsequent peace treaty was very severe. Dacia was forced to disarm and Decebalus also had to demolish his fortifications and return the Roman specialists. Furthermore, he also had to adopt a foreign policy that supported Roman interests and renounce the lands already conquered by Trajan. It was evident from the beginning that this state of affairs would not be satisfactory to
either side. The Dacians found this peace treaty humiliating and it did not take long for Decebalus to start rearming and refortifying. Historian Edward Luttwak argues that Trajan had no choice but to conquer Dacia. Its independence as a client state was no longer an option for the empire. Even if Decebalus had agreed to cooperate with the Romans, the Dacians would have wanted a more independent policy than that offered to client states. The Second Dacian War would start in 105 AD, as a result of Decebalus' breaching of the peace treaty. The main goal of this campaign was the capture of the Dacian capital, Sarmizegetusa. In spite of some dogged defense, the city was captured and destroyed.
Decebalus escaped, only to commit suicide when faced with capture. The rest of the area would be firmly in Roman hands by the summer of 106. In the end, Decebalus' fabled treasure turned out to be more than just a legend. The Dacian king hid his valuables under the bed of the river Strei and had the workers who participated in the project killed. Unfortunately for him, one of the high-ranking Dacian prisoners eventually revealed the location of the hoard. 6th-century writer Ioannes Lyddus, based on information from Cryton's Gaetica, recounts that the total spoils of war
from Dacia amounted to an exaggerated five million Roman pounds of gold and twice as much silver. French historian, Jerome Carcopino places the sum at an appreciably more modest, yet still immense 165000kg of gold and 331000kg of silver. The Dacian spoils contributed greatly to the flourishing of economic, social, and architectural activities within the Roman Empire. The Pontine Marshes were drained, a new aqueduct was constructed in Rome and many festivities were organized. The most notable project was the building of Trajan's forum - larger
than Octavian's and Caesar's forums combined and featuring the grandiose Trajan's column. It is also possible that part of the spoils was used to finance Trajan's campaign against Parthia. Following the conquest, Dacia was turned into a Roman province. Either due to enslavement, war casualties, or both, Dacia saw a severe decline in population after the wars. Trajan promoted the colonization of the new province by people from other parts of the Empire. Also, since many of the pre-existing cities were beyond repair, many new ones had to be built.
Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa, not to be confused with the destroyed Sarmizegetusa Regia, started off as a military command post but Trajan wanted to transform it into a model city and the province's capital. He hired the famous architect Apollodorus of Damascus for that task. A palace, temples, a Roman bath, forum, and an amphitheater with a capacity of 5000 were built in the city, along with a glassmaking plant and a gladiator school. The new metropolis was inaugurated in 110 and the province was named Dacia Felix - Happy Dacia or Fruitful Dacia.
Dacia was governed by General Decimus Terentius Scaurianus, who proved to be an excellent administrator. Construction continued throughout his tenure, meanwhile, the native population was also kept happy through lenient taxation and acceptable laws. Dacia Felix prospered during that time, and though taxes were quite low, Rome still netted all of the tax revenue that it needed from the region. Trajan died in 117, and his successor, Hadrian was unable to go to the Eternal City, as the Iazyges, Roxolanii and unconquered Dacians began attacking Roman territories. The Roman armies were victorious, however, Hadrian was forced to
cede some of the newer conquests in order to stop barbarian invasions. Hadrian's peaceful reign saw an increase in public spending and the abolition of several taxes, further increasing the prosperity of Dacia. The Dacian people also viewed him as a model ruler by their standards, as Hadrian was physically strong and sported a beard. The emperor paid special attention to the mining industry, assigning a special contingent of guards to the Transylvanian mines. Attracted by the low taxes and generous wages, workers from all over the Empire started flocking
to Transylvania in droves, as the resource-rich mountains became an ancient version of El Dorado. Hadrian's rule was peaceful and docile, yet, his ego was something to be feared. During Trajan's reign, Apollodorus of Damascus had ridiculed him in front of the Emperor. Hadrian ordered Apollodorus to disassemble the great bridge across the Danube at Drobeta, one of his greatest works, before having him killed. This meant that Roman armies would no longer be able to cross the Danube at will and that Dacia would mostly have to rely on its two legions for any defense.
Dacia remained at peace during the reign of Hadrian and much of Antoninus Pius' reign also. It was during the twilight of the latter's reign that the Dacian population in Roman Dacia rebelled with the support of Sarmatian tribes and Free Dacians. The Marcomannic wars also affected Dacia, as the province suffered many invasions at the hands of Germanic tribes. Dacia proved to be a critical point within the Empire both during the rule of Marcus Aurelius and Commodus. Both still devoted significant resources to its defense and civilian infrastructure.
The Roman army also began relying heavily on Dacian soldiers. This can be seen as a Dacian cohort that defended Hadrian's wall for at least two generations. Septimius Severus and Caracalla further strengthened the Dacian defenses, most notably the Limes Transalutanus. During their reign, the province saw some much-needed peace and stability. This would completely be turned around during the Crisis of the Third Century and the Gothic Migrations. Due to invasions and raids by various barbarian tribes and the overextension
of the Roman army, Roman control over Dacia was nominal or non-existent for many years. Desperately trying to save the rest of the Empire, Aurelian began evacuating his troops and civilian administration from Dacia Felix by 274. For the Roman Empire, abandoning Dacia meant an incalculable loss of gold, silver, copper, iron, salt, and grains. It also meant the loss of 500 kilometers of the border. It was a big blow to imperial prestige, but the alternatives had much graver consequences. For the large number of Dacians living still below the Danube,
Aurelian created the province of Dacia Aureliana. This province was supposed to serve as a staging point for the reconquest of Dacia, but, as we all know, that idea did not materialize. Whether Dacia turned out to be as beneficial to Rome as it was hoped is still a matter of debate to this day. In the short term, the province had brought the Empire incalculable riches when it needed them the most. In the long run, it also brought many resources, a significant taxable population, and a cadre of elite warriors. Be that as it may, by occupying
land across the Danube in the first place, Rome had opened Pandora's box. The unsolvable economic and military instability created in the region would only amplify during Roman rule and Dacia, a stabilizing force in the region, was turned into a breeding ground for further conflicts. More videos on the history of Rome are on the way, so make sure you are subscribed and have pressed the bell button to see the next video in the series. Please, consider liking, commenting, and sharing - it helps immensely. Our videos would be impossible without our kind patrons
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