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In the last years of the 19th century, tension was building in the Caribbean. American newspapers were filled with grisly reports of Spanish atrocities against the people of Cuba struggling for independence. US businessmen and expansionist politicians also saw practical opportunities in Spain's struggles: great power status and an empire for the United States. It's the Spanish-American War. Throughout the 19th century, the United States became interested in increasing its influence over the nearby island of Cuba. Spain had ruled the island for centuries, but by the 1800s, Spain was a power in decline. In the 1810s,
most former Spanish colonies in the Americas gained independence, but not Cuba, and Washington worried that another European power might sweep in and seize territories. So President James Monroe introduced what later became known as the Monroe Doctrine in 1823: the US pledged to protect the political status quo in the Americas. American businessmen looked to Cuba's economic potential as well, especially Southern cotton and sugar plantation owners. In the following decades, Cubans rose up in several revolutions against Spanish rule, often under the
slogan of Cuba Libre - Free Cuba. Spain sent tens of thousands of troops to suppress them. As US interest in Cuba increased, so did tensions with Spain. The US offered to buy the island on several occasions, and newspapers and school textbooks portrayed Spain as backward and cruel. In 1873, war was barely avoided after Spanish authorities executed 58 sailors, including US citizens, for alleged gun-running in support of the Cuban revolutionaries. In 1895, Cubans again rose up against Spanish rule, this time under leaders Jose Marti, Maximo Gomez and Antonio Maceo - who had founded the Cuban Revolutionary Party from the US a few
years earlier. They and many islanders were unhappy with Spanish corruption, economic decline - partially caused by US tariffs on sugar - and the suspension of civil liberties. The rebels used scorched earth and guerrilla tactics, ambushing Spanish troops and putting plantations to the torch to force the Spanish to leave. The strategy seemed to be working, as Spanish Captain-General Martinez Campos admitted: "I have failed… but no force can crush this rebellion… There is a spirit at work here which defies the bayonet… I predict that soon this
island will be lost to us forever…" (Werstein 18) In response, the Spanish sent General Valeriano Weyler, whose repressive tactics would earn him the nickname, 'The Butcher'. Through his policy of reconcentration, 100,000 Cubans would die in filthy and disease-ridden camps. The US tabloid media, the so-called Yellow Press, covered the atrocities - both real and imagined - in grisly detail. New York Journal owner William Randolph Hearst responded to criticism that his paper exaggerated Spanish actions: "It would be difficult to exaggerate conditions
in Cuba. We merely took a little dramatic licence. Our editors were only serving the interests of the public. Americans hate Spain, so we gave them something to stew about." (Werstein 20) So Cuba was wracked by revolution and Spanish repression, while the United States looked on. Many Americans demanded action, but Washington was hesitant. When President William McKinley was elected in 1897, he favoured a diplomatic solution. The same year McKinley became President, a more liberal Spanish government came to power in Madrid. They recalled General Weyler and promised reforms in Cuba to calm critics in
Spain and in the US. Cayetano Valiña, a blacksmith from San Adriano, reported on scenes he witnessed in Spain that showed the impact of the war: "Yesterday I was in Vigo to buy some necessary stuff and I saw a horrible scene at the port. It was covered in coffins that were being unloaded from the ships. How many people will have to die before this damn war that is harming the nation so much will end?" (Valina) At this point though, the Cuban revolutionaries were no longer responsive to vague Spanish promises of reform, and demanded full independence. The crisis rapidly came to a head in 1898. In early February, Hearst's newspapers released a leaked memo from
the Spanish ambassador to the US which was starkly critical of President McKinley: "[McKinley is] a weak bidder for the admiration of the crowd… a would-be politician, who tries to leave the door open behind himself while keeping on good terms with the jingoes of his party." (Hendrickson 20) But even more incendiary was the sinking of a US ship, the Maine, in the port of Havana. Some Americans suspected the ship was sunk by the Spanish, but in reality, it probably sank because of an internal explosion. In any case, the combination of 269 US lives lost on the Maine and the diplomatic insult piled pressure on
McKinley. He resisted calls for war, but business owners, media pundits, and other politicians demanded action. Assistant Secretary of the Navy and future president Theodore Roosevelt did not hold back in his criticism of McKinley: "McKinley has the backbone of a chocolate eclair!" (Werstein 27) The President was facing a potential rebellion within his own Republican party, so he gave in to the pressure on April 11. He asked Congress for authorisation to intervene and sent Spain an ultimatum demanding troops evacuate Cuba and give up Spanish sovereignty over the island. The Spanish accepted some points of the ultimatum,
but they refused on the issue of Cuban independence. On April 21, 1898, the US started a blockade of Cuba, so the Spanish declared war on the United States April 23. The US also declared war two days later. What Senator John Hay would describe as "a splendid little war" had begun. So the Cuban crisis had led to the start of the Spanish-American War in April 1898. America was at war, but its goals were not yet entirely clear, and the US military was not entirely prepared. American leaders argued about what they wanted to achieve from the war against Spain. Expansionists
suggested the US annex Spanish possessions, but anti-imperialists opposed the idea. Eventually, Senator Henry Teller demanded an amendment denying any US intention to annex Cuba. This move angered expansionists, but Congress approved it with little opposition. Regardless of US war aims and high public expectations, the actual military situation was less promising for the Americans. In April 1898, the US Army just 28,000 men, and the larger state militias were poorly trained and not suitable for overseas duty. As a result, the government announced a huge military spending increase and a call for volunteers. The War
Department wanted 125,000 new troops, but by August, 290,000 had signed up. One of the most famous volunteers was Teddy Roosevelt himself. He resigned his navy position to join the First Volunteer Cavalry, known as the Rough Riders. US officer John H. Parker described the unusual nature of the unit: ".The Rough Riders [were] the most unique aggregation of fighting men ever gathered together in any army. There were cowboys, bankers, brokers, merchants, city clubmen, and society dudes; commanded by a doctor, second in command a literary politician; but every man
determined to get into the fight." (Parker) The flood of US volunteers also created problems. Training camps became overcrowded, spreading diseases like typhus and scarlet fever. Equipping all the men was also an issue. Although Federal troops had adopted the modern Norwegian-designed bolt action Krag-Jörgensen rifle, many US soldiers were still equipped with the obsolete M1873 "trapdoor" Springfield - which fired black powder cartridges. There was also a lack of tropical equipment, so some soldiers wore woollen winter uniforms. Meanwhile, the Spanish had 130,000 to 160,000 men - although there was a great divergence in morale and training. But the Spaniards were armed with the excellent
M1893 Mauser rifle and smokeless ammunition, and had more experience in Cuban conditions. Armies take time to train and mobilise, and so immediate attention turned to the navies. With the US navy blockading the island, Spanish Admiral Pascual Cervera y Topete sailed for Cuba from Cadiz. Despite the strong Spanish naval tradition, Admiral Cervera was not optimistic about his chances. The US Navy had rapidly expanded and modernised in recent years, with steel-plated cruisers and battleships faster and better armed than anything the Spanish had:
"Do we owe to our country not only our life, if necessary but the exploitation of our beliefs? I am very uneasy about this. I ask myself if it is right… to make myself an accomplice in an adventure which will surely cause the total ruin of Spain. And for what purpose? To defend an island which was ours, but belongs to us no more… [To lose] all our wealth and an enormous number of young men… in the defence of what is now no more than a romantic idea." (Hendrickson 23) The Spanish and US navies were on a collision course in the Caribbean, but the first shots of the war at sea would end up
being fired 16,000km away near a different Spanish possession in a different ocean. The Philippine Islands had been a Spanish colony since the 1570s and also saw a series of uprisings in the 19th century, as well as the growth of a short-lived peaceful independence movement, La Liga Filipina. Unlike Cuba, however, before the war the islands received little US attention, as President McKinley admitted to a reporter: "I can't tell you within five hundred miles where the Philippine Islands are located - and what's more, I don't care. They are of no
concern to the United States…" (Werstein 48) However, Manila - with its large natural harbour - was home to the Spanish Asiatic Fleet, a potential threat to US interests according to Washington. Even before the declaration of war, Commodore George Dewey's US Asiatic Fleet was ordered to prepare for operations - and contact potential allies amongst the Filipinos. In 1896, a revolt of largely Tagalog-speaking Filipinos broke out in Luzon under the command of Emilio Aguinaldo. After a bloody guerrilla campaign, the Spanish cut a deal with the rebel
leader. In exchange for $850,000 - over 30 million dollars in today's money - and promises of reform, Aguinaldo went into exile. But by 1898, only half the money had been paid, no reforms had been implemented and so he continued to agitate rebels in the Philippines from abroad. Dewey now contacted Aguinaldo, and asked him to help a US invasion. Aguinaldo accepted, but the terms of their agreement would cause long term issues. Aguinaldo claimed Dewey and Colonel Wood promised him a Filipino Republic after victory. The Americans later said they made no such promise, and historians are still divided on the issue.
Regardless, by late April 1898 Aguinaldo was contacting his fighters for a renewed attacks, while Dewey moved against the Spanish fleet in Manila. Like his Atlantic counterpart, the Spanish commander Admiral Patricio Montojo was pessimistic. His fleet was decrepit, with just two protected cruisers, five unprotected cruisers, and five gunboats. Although he had the protection of coastal guns and the harbour, his mines were defective and the US guns out-ranged his. Montojo expected defeat, so he planned to fight in shallow water, as he explained to a colleague:
"When the Americanos sink our ships, the masts will protrude out of the water. Our sailors can climb to the top and wait in safety until rescued. Otherwise everyone might drown." (Werstein 52) In the early hours of May 1st, Dewey's four protected cruisers and two gunboats slipped into Manila harbour where they engaged the Spanish at 5:40am. The Spanish ships opened with an ineffective broadside, after which the US ships returned fire. The Americans attacked the Spanish fleet five times, and the Spanish flagship Reina Cristina even tried to charge the US vessels, but was racked by American fire.
By mid-morning, the one-sided battle was over. Some Spanish ships ran themselves ashore, and overall, 381 Spaniards were killed or wounded. US casualties are not entirely clear, but were very low - some claim only one American sailor died - from a heart attack. Dewey's victory was the first of the war for the US and made him a national hero, but he couldn't occupy Manila. Privately, many US officers were disappointed with their performance. Of the roughly 6,000 shells they'd fired, only 145 hit their targets. By mid-May the US was building up an invasion force in San Francisco, but the other Powers were quicker. Before the US fleet arrived, British, French, German and Japanese ships
arrived to observe the situation, and potentially take advantage of any loss of Spanish control. So, with the Spanish Asiatic Fleet defeated and Manila surrounded, attention shifted back to Cuba. By May 19th, Admiral Cervera slipped past the US fleet and entered Santiago de Cuba Bay. But then a US fleet under Rear Admiral William T. Sampson trapped the Spanish in the bay, which cleared the way for an American amphibious landing. With the bulk of Spanish forces around Havana, the US strategy would focus on an invasion of the southeast coast between Daiquiri and Siboney.
American troops could then join with Cuban rebels and threaten the fleet in Santiago. General William Shafter was in command of the US invasion force, but at 140kg and suffering from gout, he was not an ideal choice for the tropical climate. He did, however, have experience in the US civil war and the wars against Native Americans. In early June, US marines established a coaling station at Guantanamo Bay, before the main US invasion force arrived on June 22nd. Their landings were uncontested, with the only casualties resulting from accidents. Instead,
the US troops were received by Cuban rebel commander Calixto Garcia. Despite initial friendly greetings, relations quickly soured. The Cubans were in a more difficult state the Americans expected them to be based on US media illustrations. Many officers, including Roosevelt, were extremely critical: "The Cuban insurgents [were] a crew of as utter tatterdemalions as human eyes ever looked on, armed with every kind of rifle in all stages of dilapidation. It was evident, at a glance, that they would be no use in serious fighting, but it was hoped that they might be of service in scouting. From a variety of causes, however, they turned out to be nearly useless, even for [that]…" (Roosevelt)
The Americans also thought the Cubans were cowards since the rebels were reluctant to face the Spaniards in open battle. Garcia protested against these charges in a letter to Shafter: "We are a poor, ragged army as ragged and poor as was the army of your forefathers in their noble war for independence, but like the heroes of Saratoga and Yorktown, we respect our cause too deeply to disgrace it with barbarism and cowardice." (Brannen 180/181) American attitudes towards the Cuban fighters were not fully justified.
The Rebels were mostly an irregular guerrilla force skilled at ambushes, rather than assaults against entrenched Spanish troops. Despite Cuban misgivings, Shafter ordered his troops towards the village of Las Guasimas, on June 24th.The Americans advanced in two columns: Regular troops on the road, and the Rough Riders - most as dismounted cavalry - moving through the jungle. Soon they ran into Spanish troops and a firefight ensued. Although the Spaniards' smokeless powder gave them an edge in the fighting, after a two-hour battle the Spaniards made a planned withdrawal. As they did so, American officer Joe Wheeler,
who was a former confederate general, reportedly shouted that he had the "damn Yankees on the run." The Americans had defeated the Spanish in the first Cuban combat, but their commanders were divided. Admiral Sampson wanted Shafter to clear the coastal batteries around Santiago for the navy, but instead Shafter decided to attack the city himself. For Shafter, speed was the key to taking Santiago, since disease had already begun to spread among the US troops. Blocking the way to the city however were Spanish positions on the San Juan heights. The Spanish had fortified the village of El Caney,
and had prepared trenches, blockhouses, and artillery on Kettle Hill and San Juan hill. The US plan was for about 5,400 troops under Brigadier General Henry Lawton to attack El Caney and force out the defenders in just two hours. Meanwhile, the remainder of the force would attack the heights and pin down any Spanish reinforcements sent to El Caney. Once through, Lawton planned to pursue the retreating Spaniards to Santiago. On July 1st, Lawton began the main attack at around 6.30AM, but immediately it became clear he had underestimated the Spanish defenders. Despite being outnumbered 10 to 1,
the Spaniards held off US troops for eight hours. With no breakthrough imminent, more US troops moved in, including the Rough Riders - but artillery support was minimal. Most of the US guns were obsolete, and Spanish shrapnel had already suppressed several gun crews and shot down an American observation balloon. The US did have an experimental dynamite gun, which used compressed air to fire explosives, but it was stuck in a nearby gorge. Spanish sharpshooters and fire from the trenches bogged down the advancing US troops. As casualties
mounted, the Americans tried another novel weapon to break the deadlock - gatling guns on lightweight wheeled mounts. US officers sent these 10-barrelled hand-cranked automatic weapons up to the front to suppress the Spanish trenches. The covering fire of the Gatling guns allowed US infantry to get within assaulting range of the Spanish positions, and the sound of the rapid fire also raised US morale. US Lt. John "Gatling Gun" Parker commanded the Gatling detachment and later wrote florid praise for the weapon: "At this time [the gatling] gun began to talk. It spoke very voluble and eloquent orations,
which, although not delivered in the Spanish language, were well understood by our friends, the enemy, upon the hill." (Parker) At around 1pm, American forces stormed the hills. The Rough Riders, along with the African American Buffalo Soldiers of the 9th and 10th Cavalry, attacked Kettle hill, while the First Division took on San Juan Hill. They broke through the barbed wire, entered the Spanish trenches, and cleared them in close fighting. First Kettle hill fell, then San Juan, which made the Spanish position in El Caney impossible to hold. The Spanish counterattacked in the afternoon, but the intense US rifle and
Gatling fire stopped them. The surviving Spanish forces retreated to Santiago. The storming of the San Juan Heights also cemented Roosevelt's reputation as a daring war hero and the order to storm the hills is often attributed to him. However, although Roosevelt took part in the assault, the actual order came from Lieutenant Colonel John Miley. The US capture of the San Juan positions marked the end of significant fighting in Cuba. On July 3rd, Admiral Cervera, fearing assault from both land and sea, attempted to escape the harbour, but the superior US navy destroyed his fleet. Spanish Lieutenant Joaquim Bustamente recalled the effect of the American guns:
"One shell cut up the boatswain in half and the part of his body fell into the steering control line. As a result of this, the ship lost partial rudder control. We needed to clear the body from the steering control line. Next, a shell destroyed the steam governor. A third exploded on the poop deck magazine and destroyed it." (Hendrickson 136) On the 17th, Santiago surrendered after a short siege, although the Americans banned the Cuban rebels from attending the surrender ceremony at Spanish request. The war in Cuba was over - it cost 385 American and 800 Spanish lives in combat, and about 5000 Americans would eventually die from disease.
The US also targeted Spanish-ruled Puerto Rico. The island could be used as a strategic base in the Caribbean, including to protect the Panama Canal. In the years leading up to the war, the US government and business interests had pressured the Spanish to allow Puerto Rico more autonomy, with goal of increasing US influence there. Puerto Ricans were divided between those who wanted autonomy but under Spanish rule, outright independence, or annexation by the US. Many anticipated a US invasion even before the war began, like exiled independence supporter Ramón Emeterio Betances: "It's extremely important that when the first
troops of the United States reach shore, they should be received by Puerto Rican troops, waving the banner of independence, and greeting them. Let the Americans cooperate in the achievement of our freedom, but not push the country toward annexation. If Puerto Rico does not move quickly, it will be an American Colony forever." (Berry-Cabán, 96) The US navy had blockaded the capital of San Juan since May, even beating off a Spanish naval attack in June. Now, on July 25, 1898, US troops landed at Guánica with little Spanish resistance. Several small skirmishes took place, including at Coamo, Fajardo, San German, and Aibonito.
Though the Spanish and Puerto Ricans delayed the American advance and even pushed them back out of a few towns, US forces maintained their advance until the ceasefire on August 13. Military hostilities lasted just 19 days, and fighting is so light that only 3 American and 17 Spanish soldiers were killed before US forces took complete control of the island. Some Puerto Ricans welcomed the Americans with parades and fireworks, while others, especially peasants, took the opportunity to loot or burn plantations and even murdered some plantation
owners they saw as oppressive. Major General Nelson A. Miles appealed to the population: "We have not come to make war upon the people of a country that for centuries has been oppressed, but, on the contrary, to bring you protection, not only to yourselves but to your property, to promote your prosperity, and bestow upon you the immunities and blessings of the liberal institutions of our Government." (Caban, 41) With Cuba and Puerto Rico secured for the United States, American attention now shifted back to the Philippines. With Cuba and Puerto Rico secured for the United States, American attention now shifted back to the Philippines.
In late June, US troops captured the Spanish-held island of Guam before landing 10,000 men at Cavite in the Philippines on July 1. The Spanish had tried to mobilize local civilians to support their cause, but Aguinaldo's Filipino rebels had far more support and the loyalty of many Filipino soldiers supposed to serve Spain. In fact at this point, the rebels had already surrounded Manila, but their relationship with the Americans was cool. Some US businessmen and politicians were calling for the annexation of the Philippines, which worried the Filipinos. A concerned Aguinaldo ignored US advice and announced Filipino independence on June 18th. He also wrote to the US consul general:
"I have read in the [New York Evening] Journal that I am getting a 'big head' and not behaving as I promised you. In reply I ask, 'Why should America expect me to outline my policy, present and future, and fight blindly for her interests when America will not be frank with me?' Tell me this: Am I fighting for annexation, protection, or independence? It is for America to say, not me." (Brannan 61) With relations worsening, US General Wesley Merritt moved ahead without support from Aguinaldo's insurgents. By August 6th, he was discussing surrender with the Spanish governor-general Fermín Jáudenes y Álvarez.
Jaudenes wanted to surrender to the Americans, but was concerned about punishment for not contesting the city. In the end he requested a quasi-staged battle to give a pretence of resistance. Merritt agreed and on August 13, US guns bombarded an unmanned Spanish fort. Even so, in some places the fight was indeed real, and six US troops and an unverified number of Spaniards were killed. US volunteer soldier George Telfer wrote about the charade: "We call it a '[Comic Opera] War.' […] There was really no need of killing anybody. The Spanish
army code makes death the penalty for an officer who surrenders his post without a fight. So, you see there had to be a fight - but it was not where it was likely to damage property." (Telfer 79) In reality, even this staged battle was unnecessary. Unbeknownst to both sides in Manila, Spain and America had already signed a ceasefire in Washington. In the final peace treaty signed in December, Spain ceded Guam and Puerto Rico to the United States. Cuba became independent although a US military administration would oversee the island for the time being. The US also
bought the Philippines from Spain for 20 million dollars, over 700 million dollars today, Spanish administrators would temporarily stay in place. McKinley claimed US control would bring infrastructure and peace to the islands, although commercial interests, concerns of other nations seizing the Philippines and McKinley's religious convictions more likely drove the decision. So the United States had defeated Spain and acquired new territories in the Caribbean and the Pacific. But many Filipinos were not interested in American rule.
The peace deal, which excluded the Cubans and Filipinos, was the last straw for Filipino rebel Aguinaldo. On January 23, 1899, Aguinaldo approved a constitution for an independent Philippine Republic, and Filipino forces around Manila rose up against the Americans on February 4. Aguinaldo was clear as to his reasons: "It is my unavoidable duty to maintain the integrity of the national honor and that of the army so unjustly attacked by those who, posing as our friends and liberators, attempted to dominate us in place of the
Spaniards." (Philippine History Source Book, 133) The revolutionaries were no match for US forces, but they retreated into the mountains and began to wage a guerrilla war. By summer, 35,000 US troops were attempting to suppress the so-called "Philippines Insurrection". By June 1901, Filipino fighters had launched 1000 attacks against US forces. US soldier George Telfer described the nature of the jungle fighting: ". The enemy open up on us… We would lay down and fire, then get up and advance. As we advanced the enemy would retire and it became a foot race. The native can run faster than we can and we could not get within 1,000 yards of him… We halted every half hour and rested. We
burned every house we passed…" (Telfer 140-143) Such US repression became common. General Jacob Smith ordered his troops to turn Luzon into a "howling wilderness" by moving civilians into concentration camps. American troops arrested military age Filipino men, some of whom they summarily executed. In March 1901, US forces captured Aguinaldo himself. His movement had been defeated, and his own reputation damaged because he executed rival revolutionary leaders. He took an oath of allegiance to the United States, and disbanded the Philippine republic.
Republican Filipinos continued to resist US rule into 1902, while a separate rebellion of Muslim Filipinos continued even longer. The Philippine conflict claimed the lives of 5000 US troops, 20,000 Filipino revolutionaries, and 250,000 Filipino civilians, many from disease and starvation. The Spanish-American War was short and one-sided, but it had important consequences. For Cubans, it meant a fragile independence weakened by decades of US military interventions. For The Philippines, it meant nearly 50 years of American rule. The war also saw the end of the remnants of
Spain's once-global empire - they even sold their remaining Pacific island possessions to Germany in 1899. Some Spanish intellectuals of the Generation of 98 promoted liberal reforms for the country, while many military officers turned to more conservative views as a result of the defeat. The United States came out of the war much more confident on the world stage - and felt free to intervene in the Americas when it saw fit. Some even felt the war brought the country closer together after the civil war and racial strife of the previous decades, though these divisions persisted. America also had a new overseas empire,
one that companies like Bethlehem Steel and the United Fruit Company would prove eager to profit from under the protection of the US military. In the eyes of some, American had come of age; for others, it was the beginning of the American age of empire. Since you are watching this detailed documentary about one of America's wars leading up to the First World War, you are probably interested in more deep-dive military history documentaries. If you want to learn more about the Battle of Berlin, you should check out our 4 ½ hour 18-part documentary series 16 Days in Berlin. Covering the entire battle day-by-day with detailed maps,
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If you want to learn more about Central American before and during the First World War, check out our documentary about the Mexican Revolution. As usual you can find all the sources we used in video description below. Thank you for watching this video on Patreon or Nebula, your ongoing support allows us go the extra mile for our documentaries. I am Jesse Alexander and this is a production of Real Time History, the only history channel with the backbone of a chocolate éclair.
