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1935 Adolf Hitler now wields unchecked power in Germany. His hostility to the World War I peace settlement is well known. How far he will go to tear up the existing order is yet to be seen. The year begins with a public relations triumph for Nazi Germany in the Saarland. This coal-rich German region had been under League of Nations control since the end of the war, but now votes overwhelmingly to rejoin Germany. In March, Nazi aviation chief Hermann Göring officially confirms an open secret.
Germany is rebuilding its air force in defiance of the Versailles Treaty. Two weeks later, Hitler flouts the treaty again, announcing the reintroduction of military conscription. Germany is to raise an army of 36 divisions, half a million strong. Three months later, the Kriegsmarine launches a new U-boat, yet another breach of the Versailles Treaty. So far, Britain has sought fresh diplomatic agreements with Germany's new government. Its politicians hope that in exchange for some concessions, Hitler may agree to limit German rearmament, and even rejoin the League of Nations. But in both Britain and France, there is now increasing alarm about the scale of Hitler's ambition.
For Europe, the dilemma is whether Hitler's goals can be accommodated peacefully through diplomacy, or if a more forceful policy based on military deterrence and containment is required. This issue will divide politicians in both France and Britain, between appeasers and hawks. Most, however, are in the middle, seeking to combine elements of deterrence and diplomacy. But any approach depends on coordinated action by Germany's neighbors. So that April, British, French, and Italian leaders meet at the Piedmont resort of Stresa. They resolve to act together to oppose any further German violation of the Versailles Treaty. In particular, they will act jointly to preserve
Europe's borders and the independence of Austria, which Hitler is known to have his eye on. The Stresa Front seems to offer the hope of concerted European action to keep Hitler in check. But just two months later, without consulting its new Stresa Front partners, Britain agrees its own naval treaty with Germany, the terms of which themselves break the Versailles Treaty. It seems an extraordinary move by Britain and infuriates France and Italy. But British naval planners are deeply alarmed at the possibility of having to fight the German navy in European waters while simultaneously taking on the Japanese in the Pacific.
It's a nightmarish scenario. So they seize the chance of a new deal with Germany that limits the Kriegsmarine to 35% of the size of the Royal Navy. France's new prime minister, Pierre Laval, regards it as a British betrayal. Italy's leader, Benito Mussolini, concludes his Stresa partners are full of wind and respect only strength. That autumn, he orders Italian forces to launch a long-planned invasion of Ethiopia. It is one of the last African states not already claimed as a European colony, and Mussolini means to have it for his new Roman Empire. For all his bluster, Mussolini is
anxious that other powers will intervene. He is gambling that the League will protest loudly, but essentially do nothing. The League finds Italy to be in breach of Article 12 of the League Covenant, waging an illegal war. And for the first time in history, the international community imposes economic sanctions in an attempt to end the conflict. But neither the USA, Germany, nor Japan are bound by the sanctions, as they are not League members. And crucially, the sanctions do not include oil.
Even some League members ignore them in part or entirely. The economic impact on Italy is negligible. And the League, and the entire concept of collective security, suffers another damaging blow. In Germany, Hitler is delighted by the collapse of the Stresa Front and the humiliation of the League. In September that year, the Nazi-controlled Reichstag passes a Reich citizenship law and a law for the protection of German blood and honor. These measures give legal force to Nazi pseudoscience about race. The main target is Germany's Jews, vilified as a racial menace, now stripped of their citizenship and political rights.
Marriage and sexual relations between pure Aryan Germans and Jews is also forbidden. is a year that sees Hitler's Nazi government grow in confidence with a series of steps that trigger alarm bells across Europe, but no concerted response. Hitler, a masterful opportunist, decides it's time to push even further. As Italy, Japan, and Germany take steps towards building their new empires, the biggest of all, the British Empire, faces a mounting struggle to maintain order. Britain rules Palestine as a League mandate held in trust with the supposed aim of preparing the territory for independence. In reality, it is treated much like a British colony.
Here in April, a general strike by Arabs marks the beginning of a three-year revolt against British rule. Arabs clash with British soldiers and police and the growing number of Jewish settlers. The violence leaves thousands dead, injured, or in jail. In Egypt, the British agree to end five decades of colonial occupation. An exception is made for the Suez Canal, considered a vital artery of the empire, which the British will continue to garrison.
In India, the British face pressure from the Congress Party, led by Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, to grant full independence. The British have no intention of doing so and face ongoing protests and opposition with up to 80,000 political prisoners in jail. With so many imperial issues to deal with, Britain wishes to avoid a conflict in Europe at almost any cost. But there is a growing sense in Britain that France is an unreliable partner. The feeling is entirely mutual, and France is taking steps to bolster its own security. After six years of construction, the Maginot Line becomes operational.
This state-of-the-art chain of fortifications is between 12 and 16 miles in depth with 142 forts, around 5,000 blockhouses, and in some sections is served by an underground railway. In theory, France's eastern border is now impregnable to any direct German attack. But the line does not extend to the Ardennes frontier, a forested region thought to be unsuited to modern warfare. And the emphasis on fortifications and a defensive mindset has its critics. Among them, a young staff officer, Lieutenant Colonel Charles de Gaulle, who argues the vast sums involved would be better spent on mechanization of the French army.
Concerns about Germany's resurgent military power are shared in Moscow, where Joseph Stalin has embarked on a second five-year plan aimed at continuing the rapid expansion of the Soviet economy. Great sacrifices are demanded of the Soviet people in the state's bid to match the industrial and military might of its European rivals. Rewards are offered to those who can imitate heroes like Alexi Stakhanov, credited the previous year with mining 102 tons of coal in 6 hours.
Soviet production of modern weaponry, including tanks and aircraft, continues to rise. Given fresh urgency by the deteriorating international order. But Stalin does not know from where to expect a blow. From the capitalist west, Nazi Germany, or imperialist Japan. And is therefore suspicious of all. But France is now prepared to reach out across the ideological divide to renew the old Franco-Russian alliance. In February, in Paris, France ratifies a treaty of mutual assistance aimed at deterring a German attack on either by threatening Hitler with a two-front war. In truth, the treaty is toothless. No clause actually establishes military collaboration between France and the Soviets.
Yet Hitler quickly claims it is a plan to encircle Germany. He is emboldened by the weak international response to Italy's invasion of Ethiopia. And now, citing the Franco-Soviet treaty as provocation, he orders German troops to cross the River Rhine and remilitarize the Rhineland. Though part of Germany, the Versailles Treaty and the Locarno Pact stipulated that this region was to remain demilitarized, free of German troops and fortifications as a security guarantee for France. Hitler's fresh breach of both treaties creates another international crisis. But it soon emerges that neither Britain nor France are willing to risk another war with Germany over the Rhineland.
Their armed forces are unprepared. The public mood in both countries is firmly anti-war. Many regard Hitler's move as no more than the Germans walking into their own backyard, as a British politician puts it. It later emerges that German generals and Hitler himself were deeply worried that the French army would intervene. The German army remains weak. Their troops would have had to retreat. But Hitler has gambled and won. And while his popularity in Germany soars, France and Britain are made to look weak and unreliable once more.
Meanwhile, in Africa, the Italian conquest of Ethiopia has been unexpectedly hard going, given the Italians' massive advantage in military hardware and liberal use of mustard gas. Finally, in March, they win a decisive victory at Maychew. Ethiopian military resistance collapses. And 5 weeks later, Italian troops occupy the capital, Addis Ababa. The King of Italy, Victor Emmanuel III, is proclaimed emperor of Ethiopia. Italy's new conquest is united with existing colonies to form Italian East Africa.
Ethiopia's former ruler, Emperor Haile Selassie, escapes into exile. In May, he travels to Geneva to address the League of Nations, where he passionately denounces the Italian invasion and use of chemical weapons. "God and history will remember your judgment," he warns. The League not only fails to condemn Italy's actions, within 2 months, it has removed all sanctions. In Japan, the government remains under threat from extreme nationalists who wish to eliminate moderates and force Japan onto a more aggressive, militaristic path. In the February 26th incident, army officers from this faction launch another coup.
Several leading politicians are killed. But the attempt to seize control of government fails. The ringleaders are executed. Meanwhile, Japan's Kwantung Army seeks to extend its control of northern China. For the time being, a truce with Chiang Kai-shek's government prohibits further southern advances beyond the Great Wall. So instead, the Japanese push west into Inner Mongolia. They establish another puppet government in Mengjiang. Though an attempt to use proxy forces to conquer Suiyuan province is defeated by the Chinese army.
Within China, there is growing anger at Chiang Kai-shek's failure to take on the Japanese. Now, encouraged by victory in Suiyuan, others decide to act. When Chiang travels to Xi'an to visit his local commander, General Zhang, the president finds himself placed under house arrest. Zhang then forces him to make a truce with the communists so both factions can unite against Japan. This second United Front, as it is known, will prove an uneasy alliance. But it convinces Chiang Kai-shek to stand up to future Japanese demands. In Europe, the economic stress of the 1930s continues to drive political polarization and division. In France,
a left-wing Popular Front coalition wins the elections. And the socialist Leon Blum becomes prime minister. Some right-wing opponents loathe him so much they adopt the slogan, "Rather Hitler than Blum." But it is in Spain that political polarization will explode into open violence. Here, a left-wing Popular Front coalition is also elected into power. Spanish nationalists despise this new government. And in July, army officers launch a coup to overthrow it. They quickly seize control of Morocco, the Canary Islands, and Seville. But after some bloody fighting, the Republican government retains control of most major cities. With weapons distributed to civilians on both sides, the stage is set for a brutal civil war
that will rage for 3 years. General Francisco Franco emerges as leader of the rebel nationalist forces and declares himself Spain's new head of state in October. Other nations publicly agree not to intervene in Spain's civil war, but the Soviet Union is soon supplying the Republican side with weapons and advisers. Fascist Italy sends troops, black shirt militia, and aircraft to support Franco's rebels. Hitler sends air units to assist Franco, known as the Condor Legion.
This support will be a contributory factor as the war gradually swings in Franco's favor. In August, the world turns its attention to the 1936 Summer Olympics hosted that year in Berlin. Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels turns the games into a propaganda showcase for Hitler's new Reich. Anti-Semitism is toned down as foreign guests are dazzled by displays of German modernity, unity, and strength. Dignitaries are lavishly entertained by Nazi leaders such as Reichstag President Hermann Göring. Many visitors are impressed.
Hitler appears to have transformed Germany, to have restored its self-respect, revived the economy, ended the political chaos, and dealt with the communists. Hitler continues to profess his desire for peace. In Britain, particularly, some leading figures continue to wonder if the Nazis are not such a bad thing. They include King Edward VIII. And yet, that very month, Hitler gives secret orders to initiate a four-year plan. In reality, Hitler foresees not peace, but an inescapable existential war between Nazi Germany and what he calls Judeo-Bolshevism
manifested in the Soviet Union. Germany must march east, crush the Soviets, and seize living space. Otherwise, Hitler believes the German people will themselves be annihilated by their racial enemies. Under Hermann Göring's supervision, the four-year plan will prepare Germany for this conflict. The initial focus will be on domestic production of resources essential for war, such as coal, iron ore, chemicals, textiles, and aluminum. This will free Germany from the threat of blockade and provide the industrial base for large-scale rearmament. All other considerations are now subordinate to this goal. That autumn, there is a diplomatic coup for Hitler.
Just a year before, Italy had been aligned with Britain and France in the Stresa Front intended to contain Germany. But Mussolini's invasion of Ethiopia split the front for good. On the 1st of November, Mussolini announces a new alliance with Germany. He calls it the Rome-Berlin Axis. The two nations will cooperate to combat communism, to aid Franco's nationalists in Spain, and support each other's colonial ambitions. In December 1936, King Edward VIII announces his abdication. It follows months of rumor and scandal over his intention to marry an American divorcee. Many of his former subjects breathe a sigh of relief, particularly those who knew of his enthusiasm for Adolf Hitler. In the 1930s, opinion polls are still in their
infancy, but a survey of US public opinion that year finds 95% of Americans oppose involvement in any future overseas war. New neutrality laws also ban the sale of US weapons to any warring nation. The spirit of isolation is largely a reaction to World War I, a conflict of immense horror, of which the chief beneficiaries seem to have been the empires of Britain and France. In hindsight, many Americans believe they should never have gotten involved. It means that, much like Britain and France, this great power will also be a mere spectator as abroad new threats gather confidence and power.
The 1930s saw the rise of powerful modern dictators in Italy, Germany, the Soviet Union, and nationalist China. They harnessed mass media for propaganda and indoctrination, empowered secret police forces, and disappeared their political [clears throat] enemies. And ever since there have been those who seek to emulate their misdeeds with varying levels of competence and success. If you want to find out about some really bizarre and brutal despots, Real Life Lore's new series, Mad Kings, is not to be missed. Mad Kings explores the most insane and dangerous dictators, kings, and presidents for life of the modern era.
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